Illustrate and Explain using visuals on tabacco advertising between Essay

Illustrate and Explain using visuals on tabacco advertising between the 1945-1990 period to tell the difference on the advertising strategies between a male and a female - Essay Example Thus, cigarette manufacturing companies have to always maintain the cutting edge of their marketing operations to stay ahead in competition. Therefore, over the years, cigarette advertisements have evolved dramatically to encompass a wide range of experimentation of different strategies including cultural references, gender differentiation and celebrity endorsement. This 1949 ad of â€Å"Embassy,† manufactured by P Lorillard Company, employs the strategy of portraying a well groomed, white collared male for promoting their product (Tobacco Advertising Themes: For Your Health: To Your Heart’s Content 1, 2013). This version of the ad of â€Å"Embassy† portrays a classy-looking woman, which appears to be the iconic image women have aspired to become during that time (Tobacco Advertising Themes: For Your Health: To Your Heart’s Content 2, 2013). The male ad, released immediately after WW-II, manifests the aspirations of the male gender during that era. The most parts of the Western world have remained in the reconstruction phase in the aftermath of the devastating war, when jobs were in plenty. However, generally, people wanted to settle in white collar jobs and lead a comfortable life. The ad, thus, attempts to attract the consumer by projecting an image that the sophisticated, well-groomed males prefer, Embassy, which stands as a symbol of the â€Å"desirable male figure† of the 1940s. The male model, however, connotes to a macho image that borders on roughness which can be construed as a trait attributable to the perception of manliness in the post war era. On the other hand, the female ad, also released in the years immediately following the war, reflects the aspirations of the female gender during that time. The image of the woman in the ad perfectly translates to aspiration of the females living in the post war period, where they aspire for a better outlook and comfortable life. The

The period 1870 to 1914 In Germany Essay Example for Free

The period 1870 to 1914 In Germany Essay How Successfully in the period 1870 to 1914 did the ruling elites of Germany cope with the consequences of social and economic change? Introduction The period 1870 to 1914 involved significant social and economic pressures for change, not least in Germany. This essay will analyse how both Bismarck and Wilhelm II responded to these pressures and will examine how successful their responses were in coping with this change. A key change was the rapid industrialisation that put Germany ahead of Britain as Europes leading industrial power by 1914. This was reflected in the soaring of coal production, steel production, and the railway network, for example. Coal production grew from 89 million tons in 1890 to 277 million tons in 1914. However, it could be argued that Bismarck did not play an active role in economic policy, but did use it to his advantage. Historians such as Bohme point out that Bismarck merely rode and steered on the waves of Germanys economic life. The economic expansion had great implications for social and political change, as for instance an increase in the industrial workforce lead to demands for better working conditions, and an increase in Trade Union membership. As noted by Culpin Henig, there were some 2.6 million German workers who were members of trade unions by 1914. Such developments had frightened Wilhelm, like Bismarck before him, as they saw such minority groups as enemies of the state. Bismarcks strategy to Change Economic Change Spurred on by unification and an abundance of natural resources such as iron ore, Germany saw its industrial production soar. With support from financial institutions, this transformed Germany from what had been a predominantly agrarian to a major industrial state. Iron ore production soared from 2.9 million tons in 1870 to 2.2 million tons by 1890, whereas in Britain production of iron ore was 14 million tons in 1870, and had not changed by 1890. Expansion of the railways coerced the industrial growth in Germany, rising from 19.5 km in 1870, to 43 km in 1890. Agriculture did still play a vital role, act as a stimulus, due agrarian mechanisation. Bismarck however took little interest in the economy. Culpin Henig argue that this is ironic, as it was economic change that provided the greatest challenge to the stability of the empire. Bismarck embraced these changes as an opportunity to gain co-operation from the National Liberal Party at first, (the largest party in the Reichstag at the time), and also to gain military advantage. The chancellor had no party of his own, had common aims with the liberals such as national unity. By offering the liberals piecemeal concessions that at least appeared to favour free trade for example, he was assured of their support. In fact Bismarcks relationship with the Liberals was not insignificant. The so-called liberal era as Geoff Eley puts forward, produced an impressive concentration of forward looking legislation [and] an elaborate framework of capitalist enabling laws, hence promoting further economic development. Blackbaul and Ely portray Bismarck as very liberalising: Germany benefits from Bismarcks liberal and modernising tendencies. However, by the end of the 1870s Bismarck wished to discontinue granting the liberals concessions. Also, as competition from foreign imports grew, Bismarck faced increased pressure by the landed elites (the Junkers) and the Industrialists to increase economic protectionism. Bismarck believed in Real Politik, or the politics of realism. He responded accordingly to the demands of the Junkers and Industrialists. The additional attraction was that Germany would receive extra income from tariffs and that the country would be more self-sufficient. This increase in protectionism effectively ended the liberal era of Bismarcks chancellorship. Together with the system of Cartels already flourishing in Germany, the benefits of mass production remained with the Junkers and Industrialists, and were not passed on to the consumer. Social Change These intensive changes in Germanys economy had a significant impact on the society. The massive influx of workers from rural areas to cities and towns, resulted in people discovering new freedoms. With this new found freedom came increased demands for better working conditions, for instance, which fuelled an increase in trade union membership. The very speed of this industrialisation meant that society was less able to adjust than in Britain. Pulzer points to the dissonance of the economic dynamism of the Reich and the relative stagnation of its social norms and political institutions. Industrialisation did not usually involve social mobility, but a stratification of existing structures as S. Lee notes. For instance, the working classes increased in number and strengthened their identity, but this simply aggravated the suspicion of the social elites. The Prussian Junkers in particular felt threatened by these social changes (due to the decreasing role of agriculture in the economy), but as noted above, Bismarck took a change in direction to economic protectionism in an attempt to preserve their position. The middle classes were caught up between the working classes and the social elites. They had pressures below them from the working classes and from the Industrialists and Junkers above them. Their main aim was to maintain their position. Unification had involved the imposition of Prussian ideologies throughout the newly united Germany, in which Prussia was the dominant state. This presented Bismarck with a number of problems, one of which he saw as the Catholics, whom he viewed as the enemies of the state, partly for their dislike of Bismarckian politics. The Kulturkampf, or struggle for civilisation, was supported by the May Laws in 1873, which included the severing diplomatic relations with the Vatican and the removal of Catholic influence from society. The campaign in the main failed and was abandoned at the end of the 1870s, as Bismarck turned his attention to what he viewed as the menace of socialism and sought an defensive alliance with Austria. As C Grant Robinson put it, Bismarck deliberately sacrificed victory in the Kulturkampf to victory in other issues, more important in his judgement. This change of direction has often been referred to as political opportunism. With this change of direction Bismarck in the main severed his alliance with the German Liberals. This alliance had not lived up to the expectations of several influential groups in the Reich, which prompted Bismarck to switch towards economic and political conservatism. Agatha Ramm describes these changes as a coherent and systematic revision of policy in relation to the economic, social and financial needs of the Reich. Bismarck, partly looking to the events of the Paris Commune, took on a very anti-Socialist stance, as he saw the Socialists as the new enemies of the state. He sought to repress the Socialist movement, but this only seemed to serve to increase the popularity of the Socialist Workers Party. Bismarck tried to curtail this growth by means of legislation, which included the banning of socialist newspapers and meetings in Germany. Bismarck, realising that socialism could not be conquered by repression alone, introduced a programme of state socialism, which included medical insurance and sick pay. W.M Simon argues that this did not convince the workforce and hence they gave their support to the left. However, AJP Taylor suggests that this was not the case, indicating that workers had taken on an understanding that the more they co-operated with the state, the more rewards they would receive: the workers seemed to have received social security as the price of political subservience. Political Change There were political implications from the social diversity of Germany. There was an intention to rally to lower orders, by promoting nationalism through patriotism rather than socialism through internationalism as S Lee puts it. The elites put pressure on Bismarck to pursue an active foreign and colonial policy to promote this stance, to turn the lower orders attention away from the domestic social problems. The elites did their utmost to impose constraints to curtail any political expansion to the lower orders. Overall, Bismarck did all he could to stifle the development of parliamentary democracy in Germany. Whilst the Reichstag could comment on legislation, Bismarck had the power to veto anything. The parties in the Reichstag were more like sectional pressure groups, with membership centred around social class origins. Max Weber supports this viewpoint, noting that the German political system was merely sham constitutionalism. AJP Taylor sums up Bismarcks stance to democracy very effectively, in stating that Bismarck lived in an age of democracy and German power and he devoted his life to making these forces as harmless as possible. This did not bode well for the future, as Weber comments, Bismarck left behind him as political heritage a nation without any political education. He also emphasised that the country was accustomed that the statesman at its head would look after all policy for it. Bismarck wanted to be aware of potential threats to the state he had created, and once himself stated when we have arrived at good harbour, we should be content to cultivate and hold what we have won. In order to protect what he had achieved in a unified Germany, and in response to European pressure, Bismarck used his unique negotiating skills to forge a number of alliances, in an attempt to ensure European peace and avoid war on two fronts. A number of alliances were attempted to preserve peace in Europe, beginning with the dreikeiserbund, or league of 3 emperors in 1873, (involving alliances with Russia and Austria), and later a separate dual alliance with Austria alone, with Italy coming into the Fray in the late 1880s. Whilst these alliances in the main failed to run smoothly, they did at least restore order in Europe and ensure that the changes taking place in Germany were not impeded by an outside conflict. Wilhelm IIs Strategy to Change Wilhelm II stated that he wanted to appeal to all elements of society, and in doing so he pursued a number of random, ad hoc policies that appeared to be ill thought out indicating, lack of central direction and did not necessarily harness change to his advantage. Economic Change The spectacular pace of industrialisation, aided by significant population growth, served to propel Germany to the status a major industrial power in the years to 1914. The population increased from 49 million in 1890 to 65 million by 1910. Coal production increased from 89 million tons in 1890 to 277 million tons in 1914, whilst steel production over the same period increased from 2.3 million tons to 14 million tons. Advances in the railway network, and new industries such as chemicals and electricity coerced this economic expansion. Overall income per capita increased substantially relative to European peers , increasing living standards as a result. However, this economic prosperity was not shared by German agriculture, which had to be supported by substantial internal tariffs just to keep the Junker farmers solvent. Conversely, Wilhelm promoted greater economic liberalism, under his first Chancellor Caprivi, reducing certain tariffs in an effort to bolster free trade, but upsetting the Junkers in the process by reducing their income from agricultural tariffs. Wilhelm II harnessed this growth in economic power to build up Germanys military might, which included the merchant navy, to make it comparable to Britains. Volker Berghahn notes that the development of the navy was more for popular, patriotic emotion, rather than as a strategic weapon in its own right, inciting that it promoted national unity. With economic expansion on such a massive scale, it was bound to have deep social and political implications, which the Kaiser failed to realise. Germany became increasingly in such a strong position that could have frightened other European countries into defensive alliances against it. Social Changes The population of Germany increased rapidly, rising from 49 million in 1890 to 65 million by 1914 and many people found themselves living in cities close to their new industrial workplaces. Anti-socialist laws were allowed to lapse under Wilhelm, but as the 1890s progressed, under the influence of Industrialists and Junkers, the Kaiser became concerned at the number of concessions Trade Unions were winning. Working conditions improved significantly as a result, with reforms such as restricted Sunday hours. The Socialists in Germany were comparatively moderate, as the German workforce enjoyed a relatively high standard of living, which continued to improve. For instance, over the period 18895 to 1907, wages increased by some 100 percent, whilst the cost of living only rose 22 percent in the same period. Hence real wages and disposable income were outstripping the cost of living, which served to dampen Trade Union demands. It was because of this increase in affluence that support for Socialists grew, it could be argued. By 1912, the Socialists were the largest party in the Reichstag, which served to increase the Kaisers paranoia. Wilhelm himself commented, following these elections, the German Parliamentarian becomes daily more of a swine. Wilhelms attempts to curtail Socialism reflected Sammlungs politik, which was a policy of bringing together. This policy involved the bringing together under a common set of ideas, all grouping in Germany, with the exception of Socialists, and also the use of an active foreign policy. The main exponent of Sammlung Politik was Chancellor Bulow, who upset groups in the Reichstag, such as the Progressives, which pushed such groups towards Socialism. The next Chancellor, Hollweg, tried to stop this trend of an increase in support for the Socialists, and used many means that were at his disposal, such as the army and civil service, but his success in this respect was very limited. All the changes convinced the ruling elite that Socialism was a danger, but historians are divided on this point. For instance, when World War One broke out, the Socialists offered support, not typical of a revolutionary behaviour. In addition, to what uses would German workers turn their power, should they win it? The Socialist Democratic Party (SPD) suffered from lack of political education, as was evident in the fact they did not remove the Kaiser. So the attempt by the regime to crush socialism was not well thought out, as it did not pose any serious threat. The Kaisers campaign against Socialism at the beginning of the century offered no political concessions and is this respect was likely to spark domestic conflicts. Wilhelms attitude to the working classes contrasted sharply from that of the Junkers and Industrial elites, whose pleas he was very receptive to. This seems very contradictory, as the Kaiser in 1894 had proclaimed that he wanted to be the King of Beggars. Political Changes In effect, none of the four Chancellors under Wilhelm held any significant power, as Wilhelm would interfere in the business of the state, as his second Chancellor pointed out: if I cannot get the Kaisers consent for measures I regard as necessary, then I have no authority. Politically, Wehlr has described Wilhelm as being at the mercy of navy league nationalists, Junkers and industrialists. Whilst it was recognised that the Kaiser made all the decisions, he was greatly influenced by the Junkers, the Industrialists, the civil service and the army. This was against a background of democracy pretence in the Reichstag, which was effectively and constitutionally a talking shop. The Reichstag was not central or integral to the policy making process. There was immense resistance to political change, particularly in moves towards democracy. Wilhelm embraced conservative ideas that were so right wing they were almost fascist. Whilst there were major economic and social changes taking place inside and outside Germany, the political structure remained static. However, as time progressed there is evidence that the Reichstag began to fight back, for instance in 1912 the Kaiser tried unsuccessfully to pass a bill, intended to jail anyone stopping any man from working, or encouraging strikes. This was not the first occasion that the Reichstag had refused to pass anti-socialist and anti-union legislation. Above all, the Kaiser wanted a place in the sun for the Germans. The problem was that there was very little room left for new colonisation in the early part of 1900. Bulow suggested that the pace of economic expansion forced the need for colonisation: Our need for national development, mainly in the industrial sphere, forced us to cross the ocean. In spite of the fact that Germany was planning colonisation very late compared to other powers, the Kaiser built up the German military machine and under the Tirpitz Plan, and built a naval fleet to rival that of Great Britain. The term saber rattler sums up his politics as well as his personality. Historian Barbara Tuchman put it appropriately when she referred to the Kaiser as possessor of the least inhibited tongue in Europe. The Kaiser clearly wanted a world role for Germany, but the physical results of Weltpolitik were somewhat meagre. Conclusion The reaction on the part of both Bismarck and Wilhelm to the increasing but modest demands for social and political reform was to try to repress the forces of change, as both saw socialism as a significant threat to the regime. The key difference between Bismarck and Wilhelm was that Bismarck realised that he could not defeat socialism by repression alone. Comparing the policy styles of Bismarck and Wilhelm, it appears that in spite of Bismarcks adherence to real politik, he still maintained a clearer sense of direction than Wilhelm, whose policies seemed ill thought out and lacking direction. As noted by Mosse, although Bismarck played his hand with great skill, it was a good one in the first place. Sturmer supports this argument by stating that Bismark was good at diplomatic games. It is clear then that when the regime fell into the hands of Wilhelm, who according to Rhal dreamt up policies, pursued and made a mess of policies, there were socio-political implications for Germany, which it seemed by 1914 could only be alleviated by a short, sharp, victorious war. Bibliography. Culpin, C Henig, R ( 1998). Modern Europe 1870-1945. Longman Advanced Hisory. Lee, S (19). Germany 1870-1918 Morris, TA, (1995). European History 1848-1945. University Tutorial Press Limited. German News Magazine, (1998). Otto Von Bismarck, Founder of the German Empire.

A Price Above Rubies :: essays research papers

" I’m going to question whatever I like", " I’m going to choose whatever side I want and if God happens to be on the other side then so be it." I believe these two quotes capture the essence of the film " A Price Above Rubies". The main character, Sonia Horowitz, a Hasidic Jew, embarked on a journey in which she sought to find herself through questioning her faith and the strict Jewish life.In doing so, she paid a heavy price. This, I believe, to be the message of the film. The movie starts off with a close up of a ring being crafted, incomplete. Then we see sonia’s brother, Yossi, telling her the story of the woman who broke free of the Jewish community. The woman’s father wanted her to marry a great scholar and lead a good spiritual life. After leaving, she wanders back years later, with child. The community shuns the child, and when she dies, heaven rejects her, so she goes to hell, but the devil cannot bear to see her suffer anymore because he recognizes her as his niece, so she wanders the earth for eternity. The woman is the daughter of a demon. Sonia tells Yossi - " I love you more than anything", when Yossi asks her if she loves him more than God. Yossi tells her she is a sinner and will end up just like the woman in the story, wandering the earth for eternity, like Cain. Yossi then gives her a fake ruby, which she immediately recognizes and rejects. Perhaps the jewel symbolizes her soul, what makes her complete, and she won’t accept a fraud, something in place of the real thing, even at that young age. The film goes forward a number of years, to when Sonia and her husband Mendel have just had their first child. Mendel is the perfect example of the devout Hasidic Jew. He is a scholar, and respected by everyone in the community. The Hasidic Jews believe that wisdom, not folly, and the studying of God’s word, knowledge, is the way to happiness and to God. " Blessed is the man who finds wisdom, the man who gains understanding, for she is more profitable than silver, yields better return than gold. She is more precious than rubies. " Proverbs 3:13-15. They also believe that to fear God is the way to wisdom and understanding and a better spiritual life.

Electoral College Of U.S.A Essay

The President and Vice-President of U. S. A are being elected by a body of electors. The scripter’s of U. S Constitution formulated an indirect method for electing the President and Vice-President. This method is known as the ‘Electoral College â€Å"which scripter viewed that would end in informed, educated persons being selected to their nation’s top position. However, each political party in U. S. A picks up their own cadres to act as electors to elect the top leaders. Thus, presidential candidates have to secure majority votes in the Electoral College for winning the election. In the U. S Presidential election, voters do not vote for President or Vice-President directly but pick up electors who are pledged to support their presidential candidates. Each State in U. S. A has as many electors at is has U. S Senators which will be normally two and U. S Representatives, the number will be depending upon the state’s population. For instance, the District of Colombia is having three electoral votes. Those presidential candidates who have the most popular votes win all of the state’s electoral votes. This is recognized as the â€Å"winner-take-all† rule. (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2007). The electors in each state will assemble in their legislative assemblies and vote for presidential candidate during the election time. Thus, each state testimony its electoral votes and forwards the results to the U. S Congress which counts the ballots. The counting will be carried over by the Senate and the House of Representatives and it will review the â€Å"Electoral College† votes. The candidate who obtains the majority of 270 Electoral College votes out of total 538 wins despite of the outcome of the popular votes. In case, if there is a tie or if no candidate obtains a majority, then the House of Representatives picks up the President and the Senate picks up the Vice President. Due to the concept â€Å"winner-take-all† dictum, it is possible as it had happened in the year 2000 election (Bush v Al Gore), a candidate who win the popular vote and still lose the Electoral College. Dating from 1845, the federal law requires that electors must be chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November and the counting of votes will be perused by the Congress on January 6. The Electoral College is vehemently attacked that it has to be reformed as it had given the country about 14 minority presidents. Thus, the following are the Presidents who had won the majority in the Electoral College even though they lacked behind in obtaining popular vote. It is to be observed that among the above mentioned Presidents, only Harrison, Hayes and George W. Bush failed to obtain a plurality of the popular vote. The main aim of the Electoral College system is to give more recognition to the less populace states on the basis of the number of a state’s electors on its senators and U. S representatives and to prevent the President to focus more attention to most populous states and on the problems significant to their voters. One of the main intentions of Electoral College is to make sure that most qualified candidate and not the most popular candidate would be chosen by electors on behalf of their states but by making an independent judgment. After the Twelfth Amendment, there were copious efforts to amend the Electoral College and to alter the system of presidential election, but none of them has succeeded. George W. Bush popular-vote loss and victory in Electoral College with a thin margin in the year 2000 again triggered the support for annulment of Electoral College system as it lacks natural justice in deciding the victory of the presidential election.

The Psychological Effects Cults Have on People

This paper will address the meaning of the word cult. While also touching briefly on why its difficult to describe what a cult is and how it could be compared to Christianity and Jews. I also give some examples of people who started groups/cults with the art of persuasion; Leading some of their member to even commit murders and suicide. Finally by the end paper one would fully understand the roles cults play in the physiological process of a person. For many years, cult leaders always had a psychological hold on their followers' minds. Whether it was to kill other people or to kill themselves, they did it without question. Some cult leaders used fear, violence and guilt as a means of a weapon to control the minds of their followers. Other cult leaders used persuasive and spiritual speeches that made their followers believe they were doing good and fulfilling God's plan. Because cult leaders are powerful through psychological offenses, the people that belong to their cults are brainwashed into doing things they wouldn't normally do in their right state of mind. For years, there have been problems surrounding the definition of the term ‘cult'. The literal and traditional meanings of the word cult, which are more fully explored at the entry Cult (religion), come from the Latin cultus, meaning â€Å"care† or â€Å"adoration,† as â€Å"a system of religious belief or ritual; or: the body of adherents to same. † In French or Spanish, culte or culto simply means â€Å"worship† or â€Å"religious attendance†; therefore an association cultuelle is an association whose goal is to organize religious worship and practices. The word for â€Å"cult† in the popular English meaning is secte (French) or ecta (Spanish). In formal English use, and in non-English European terms, the cognates of the English word â€Å"cult† are neutral, and refer mainly to divisions within a single faith, a case where English speakers might use the word â€Å"sect†. Hence Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Pro testantism are cults within Christianity. However, in common usage, â€Å"cult† has a very negative connotation, and is generally applied to a group in order to criticize it. Understandably, most groups, if not all, that are called â€Å"cults† deny this term. Some groups called â€Å"cults† by some critics may consider themselves not to be â€Å"cults†, but may consider some other groups to be â€Å"cults†. Although anti-cult activists and scholars did not agree on precise criteria that new religions should meet to be considered â€Å"cults,† two of the definitions formulated by anti-cult activists are: Cults are groups that often exploit members psychologically and/or financially, typically by making members comply with leadership's demands through certain types of psychological manipulation, popularly called mind control, and through the inculcation of deep-seated anxious dependency on the group and its leaders. Cult: A group or movement exhibiting a great or excessive devotion or dedication to some person, idea, or thing and employing unethically manipulative techniques of persuasion and control designed to advance the goals of the group's leaders to the actual or possible detriment of members, their families, or the community. The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines cult as: â€Å"a religion regarded as unorthodox or spurious; also: its body of adherents. Indeed, any religion involving unconditional worship and unquestioning obedience to God could be labeled as a cult (using the derogatory suggestion of the word), since such a religion would have that high level of dependency, obedience, and unwavering compliance ascribed to cults by definition. Many mainstream religions still require their members to believe in God unquestioningly, to have faith that he is good and that what he does is good, to consider one's own wants and needs as unimportant while accepting the will of God as par amount. All of these are certainly characteristics commonly attributed to cults, but while it would not be unreasonable to apply this definition of a cult to any dogmatic religion that requires strict compliance with God's word and will as a condition of membership, the notion of applying the word â€Å"cult† to Christianity, Islam, Judaism, or any other major world religion today is considered absurd. There are those who make this very claim: that those who worship God fit the classic depiction of cult members in their dogmatism, unswerving obedience, and denial of self. This highlights the problematic nature of defining what is and is not a cult. The problem with defining the word cult is that purported cult members generally resist being called a cult, and the word cult is often used to marginalize religious groups with which one does not agree or sympathize. Some serious researchers of religion and sociology prefer to use terms such as new religious movement (NRM) in their research on cults. Such usage may lead to confusion because some religious movements are â€Å"new† but not necessarily cults, and some purported cults are not religious or overtly religious. Where a cult practices physical or mental abuse, some psychologists and other mental health professionals use the terms cult, abusive cult, or destructive cult. The popular press also commonly uses these terms. However, not all cults function abusively or destructively, and among those that psychologists believe are abusive, few members would agree that they suffer abuse. Other researchers hold the view that classifying a religious movement as a cult is generally used as a subjective and negative label and has no added value; instead, they argue that one should investigate the beliefs and practices of the religious movement. The field of cults and new religious movements is studied by sociologists, religious scholars, and psychologists and psychiatrists. The debates about a certain purported cult and cults in general are often polarized with widely divergent opinions, not only among current followers of a purported cult and disaffected former members, but sometimes even among scholars and social scientists. Psychologists, among them those specialized in group psychology, studied what cognitive and emotional traits make people accept to join a cult and to stay loyal to it. Some groups, particularly those labeled by others as cults, view the designation as insensitive, and feel persecuted by their opponents whom they often believe to be part of the â€Å"anti-cult movement†. Such groups often defend their position by comparing themselves to more established, mainstream religious groups such as Catholicism and Judaism. The argument offered in this case can usually be simplified as, â€Å"Christianity and Judaism can also be defined as cults under some definitions of the term, and therefore the term cult is superfluous and useless. Members of groups referred to as cults have been known to engage in long discussions over the definition of the word â€Å"cult. † Critics of alleged cult groups state that by doing so, these persons have been known to waste large amounts of time and effort that would be better spent examining the actions of the groups in question, in order to reveal why these groups are referred to as cults. Another problem with writing about cults comes about because they generally hold belief systems that give answers to questions about the meaning of life and morality. This makes it difficult not to write in biased terms about a certain cult, because writers are rarely neutral about these questions. Some writers who deal with the subject choose to explicitly state their ethical values and belief systems to deal with this difficulty. For many scholars and professional commentators, the usage of the word â€Å"cult† applies to abusive behavior, and not to a belief system. For members of competing religions, use of the word remains pejorative and applies primarily to rival beliefs, and only incidentally to behavior. In the sociology of religion, the term cult is a part of the subdivision of religious groups into sects, cults, and denominations. In these terms, it is a neutral term, referring to a religious movement with novel beliefs and a high degree of tension with the surrounding society. Cults, in this sense, may or may not be dangerous, abusive, etc. By this definition, most of the groups which have been popularly labeled cults are indeed cults. In some cults people don't join them, they are recruited by the cults. Philip Zimbardo explains, â€Å"People join interesting groups that promise to fulfill their pressing needs. They become cults when they are seen as deceptive, defective, dangerous, or as opposing basic values of their society† (Zimbardo 212). The fact is, the recruitment techniques that cults employ are quite effective. Cults obviously want to be successful, so they seek to recruit the most capable people who can effectively serve them. Many cult members are doctors, lawyers, professors, and high profile celebrities responsible citizens. This is why some cults have survived for decades and functioned efficiently despite a high turnover rate, public disapproval and angry parents. People often believe cult members must have been neglected by their families. But this conclusion is in sharp contrast to the actions taken by many concerned families who will devote their money and time in intervention efforts to bring their children out of such groups and home again. Zimbardo urges people not to stereotype cult members. Rather than asking â€Å"What kind of people join cults? he suggests we should instead ask, â€Å"What was so appealing about this group that so many people were recruited/seduced into joining it voluntarily? What needs did the group fulfill that were not met by ‘traditional society? ‘† (Zimbardo 126). It is also important to note that cults make many promises to potential recruits in the initial phases of induction–it is often not until months or years later that the recruit reali zes that these promises were ploys to gain their compliance. However, by that time, the member is already submerged in the group and likely in submission to and under the undue influence of its leadership. Since at least the 1940s, the approach of orthodox or conservative or fundamentalist Christians was to apply the meaning of cult such that it included those religious groups who used (possibly exclusively) non-standard translations of the Bible, put additional revelation on a similar or higher level than the Bible or had practices deviant from those of traditional Christianity. These unorthodox groups can be rather large or small. Understandably, these groups deny that they are cults. By 1967, Charles Manson had spent most of his adult life in jail, mostly for such offenses as car theft and credit card fraud. He also worked some time as a pimp. He gathered a group of followers, which he referred to as the Family, a group bound together by fanatical loyalty to Manson, and an abolishment of all moral precepts. He soon afterwards moved to Los Angeles, at first basing himself and the Family in Pacific Palisades and then taking over an unused ranch in the western San Fernando Valley formerly used to make western movies, the Spahn Ranch. Inspired by the Beatles song â€Å"Helter Skelter† and other songs off the White Album he became convinced of an impending race war and nuclear attack, based on Biblical prophecy in the Book of Revelation. He implied to his followers that he was Jesus Christ, saying he had died before, some 2000 years ago. However when asked directly in court he said, â€Å"I may have implied on several occasions to several different people that I may have been Jesus Christ, but I haven't decided yet what I am or who I am. (Bugliosi 341) Around the time the family was formed, he is said to have begun calling himself by a slightly different name, Charles Milles Manson (his real name was â€Å"Charles Willis Manson†), allegedly because it could be read symbolically as â€Å"Charles Will Is Man's Son†. Although only a few members of the Family came to national attention, the Family itself seems to have been quite a significant size, estimates of up to 100 people (of varying degrees of involvement) associated with the Family have been quoted beyond the â€Å"hard core† of around 30. On the night of August 9, 1969, Manson directed some members of the Family to commit murder. These were Charles â€Å"Tex† Watson, Patricia Krenwinkel, and Susan Atkins, at or around midnight entered the home of actress Sharon Tate, wife of director Roman Polanski, who was eight months pregnant, and murdered her along with friend, Hollywood hairstylist Jay Sebring, and house guests Abigail Folger, the coffee heiress, and her lover Voytek Frykowski. Before entering the house, they had shot to death Steven Parent, an 18 year old youth who was leaving the property and had unwittingly seen the intruders. Linda Kasabian was the look-out and driver, and later received immunity for submitting evidence against the group. She told Manson, â€Å"I'm not like you, I can't kill anybody†(Bugliosi 312) and evinced shock and horror at finally seeing the pictures of the killings in court. The victims had been stabbed ferociously many dozens of times, and words were left on the walls in their blood. The following night in the Los Feliz section of Los Angeles, California, businessman Leno LaBianca and his wife Rosemary LaBianca were also murdered in their home, once again by members of the Family. On this occasion, Manson apparently went along to â€Å"show them how to do it† with less tumult, and pacified the victims, tying them up before returning to the car to tell his followers to commit the murders. There was no apparent connection between the victims of the murders, but the crimes were prosecuted by Los Angeles assistant district attorney Vincent Bugliosi in a single trial. Members of the Manson Family had previously been responsible for the murder of Gary Hinman, a music teacher, in Topanga and were suspected of other murders. They claimed a total of some 35 killings, not counting those after the trial, of which several were considered likely or plausible, but were not tried on most of these either for lack of evidence, or because the perpetrators were already sentenced to life for the Tate/La Bianca killings. It begins with the Beatles, and with the Beatles' celebrated White Album that came out in 1968. In it, while tripping on acid, Manson heard the message that put it all together for him. There would be a war between blacks and whites; whites would lose. Manson and his followers would hide out in the desert when the slaughter took place. When it was over they would emerge from their hiding places and somehow convince the blacks that they should be made the leaders of this new world. He got all this not just from the Beatles but also from the Bible. Perhaps his most fascinating connection was to put side by side the Beatles song â€Å"Revolution 9† with Revelations 9 from the Bible. Revelations, the final book of the New Testament, has always been the favorite of mystics because its wild apocalyptic imagery is so bluntly addressed not to the literal but to symbolic consciousness. For those who read scripture not as a moral code of social behavior nor as a literal history book but as a symbolic rendering of a reality out of time and out of mind, the book of Revelations is the proof text. In the book Helter Skelter, Susan Atkins is quoted in saying â€Å"The whole thing was done to instill fear in the establishment and cause paranoia. Also to show the black man how to takeover the white man. † When asked to describe the start of Helter Skelter, she defined it as â€Å"The last war on the face of the earth. It would be all the wars that have ever been fought built one on top of the other†(293). To Manson, Judgment Day, Armageddon, and Helter Skelter were one and the same, a racial holocaust which would see the black man emerge triumphant. David Berkowitz became known as the ‘Son of Sam' after taunting letters from him to police investigating the case were published in newspapers. At a court in Brooklyn, New York, Berkowitz admitted all the killings which in 1977 had residents of three New York boroughs living in fear. He also admitted wounding seven people before he was arrested in August 1977. Berkowitz, who acquired his proficiency with guns through a three-year stint in the US army, said he had no motive other than â€Å"excitement† for carrying out the shootings. However, the Son of Sam nickname was adopted after Berkowitz used the term to describe himself in an anonymous letter to police in April 1977. The first killing attributed to Son of Sam occurred in July 1976 when 18-year-old Donna Lauria was shot as she sat in a car with a friend in the Bronx district of New York. However police did not realize there was a serial killer on the loose until another two people had been murdered and several more injured. The link was not made until March 1977 when it was found the gun used to kill Ms Lauria had also been used in the fatal shooting of 19-year-old Virginia Voskerichian. The press initially dubbed Berkowitz â€Å"the . 44 Killer† after the calibre of gun he used. â€Å"Unlike a number of other high profile criminals, Berkowitz kept to him self†(Terry xiv) He was eventually captured after being linked to the scene of the final killing through a parking ticket issued when he left his car parked illegally. Berkowitz quickly confessed and claimed he was ordered to kill by a neighbor's dog. He also admitted to being behind the unsolved stabbings of several women, all of whom survived. In June 1978 David Berkowitz was sentenced to 365 years in jail. Over the years Berkowitz has hinted he did not work alone. Conspiracy theorists believe Berkowitz was part of a satanic cult and that others were involved in the shootings. â€Å"The group's main goals were power, greed and terrorism. It is the embodiment of organized evil†(Terry xii). They also believe that the members in this satanic cult did not also work with Berkowitz, but also worked with Charles Manson and had been part of ‘the Family. The Peoples Temple was a cult that is best known for a mass suicide at Jonestown, Guyana, on November 18, 1978. The Temple was founded in 1953, at Indianapolis, Indiana, by Reverend Jim Jones. In Indianapolis, and at the California cities of Ukiah, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, where Jones extended new branches of his church, they earned a good reputation for aiding the ci ties' poorest citizens, especially racial minorities, drug addicts, and the homeless. Soup kitchens, daycare centers, and medical clinics for elderly people were set up, along with counseling programs for prostitutes and drug addicts who wanted to change their lives. Then disturbing accounts began to spring up, told by a few people who had succeeded in leaving the cult. â€Å"Jones has a power that operates on fear, guilt and extreme fatigue. While we were in it we did many strange things. We signed over all of our property. We wrote and signed false, self-incriminating statements. We had to admit that we were homosexuals and that we molested our children. We had to participate in painful punishments for such minor things as forgetting to call Jones â€Å"Father,† forgetting to pay a bill, or for giving a piece of candy to a child. Some of the punishments were beatings, humiliations and medications that made people appear to die (later to be resurrected by Jones). The beatings were intensely brutal. Many times the beatings would be done on children four and five years old. The board they used was three-quarter of an inch thick and about two and a half feet long. Children were beaten the number of times decided by Pastor Jones, often as many as 150 times. During the beating, Jim Jones would demand that a microphone be held to the child's mouth so that the audience could hear the groans of pain. The microphone was unnecessary as the screams could be heard throughout the whole building. After the beating the child or adult would be held up and forced to say, â€Å"Thank You, Father. † If they didn't say this, they would be beaten again. We were so frightened of him and his power that we would have sworn to anything he asked. We believed that he would always take care of us and would never harm us, even though we witnessed daily atrocities that should have convinced us otherwise. It is impossible to explain the effect of his brainwashing. We do know that it took months after we left to be able to think and act as normal, reasonable people†(Mills 13). Jones was stealing from his followers, faked the miracle healings, was punishing the members severely, practicing sodomy with male members, and now considered himself the new Messiah. By now, journalists, law enforcement officials, and politicians were showing interest in Jones' group. Jim Jones reacted with frequent long and angry speeches, where he claimed that the defectors lied, and the outside world was trying to destroy them. At the time, more former members told of beatings and abuse within the People's Temple, and relatives of members insisted that members were being forced to remain there against their will. Jones reacted by moving his church, over 800 followers, to Guyana. The followers were promised a tropical paradise, free from the wickedness of the outside world, but when they arrived, they were forced to work by Jones' orders, and together they built Jonestown. In November 1978, the cult was visited by Leo Ryan, a United States Congressman, who was investigating claims of abuse. A number of Temple members expressed a desire to leave along with the Congressman, and the entire group went to the local airstrip. Temple security guards fired on the group, killing Congressman Ryan, three journalists, and a Temple member who wanted to leave. The shootings were captured on film by one of the journalists who died in the attack. Later that day, Jones ordered his congregation to drink a cyanide-laced soft drink in the Jonestown mass suicide. Those who resisted were shot, strangled or injected with cyanide. Jones was found with a shot wound in his head. Upon investigation his body contained high doses of drugs. In all, 914 people died. Mind control theories are based on the premise that an outside source can control an individual's thinking, behavior or consciousness. Such theories have ethical and legal implications. The mind control theories as applied to membership in new religious movents assumes that no one would join such a group if he knew what he was getting into. In Helter Skelter, Bugliosi states about Manson's control over his ‘family' â€Å"A domination so complete, that they would do anything he told them to do. Including murder. Getting this evidence was especially difficult because Manson rarely gave direct orders. Usually, he'd suggest, rather than command, though his suggestions had the force of commands†(287). The recruit is not to be held responsible for his actions, since he was â€Å"under control†. Neither scientists nor sociologists generally consider this model a viable theory. Theories vary as to the degree of control attained and the methods used to attain it (either direct or more subtle). When these methods are used forcibly on captives, most sources refer to it as â€Å"brainwashing† Although to their followers, Reverend Jim Jones and Charles Manson were all messianic and each possessed the uncommon ability to totally control and dominate the lives of those who believed in them. Clearly, many influences from the outside world influence people's minds, such as advertising, media manipulation, and propaganda. Politics plays a role in the forming of cults. Charles Manson had a hatred towards police. In Helter Skelter, Manson states â€Å"I have x'd myself from your world. You have created the monster. I am not of you, from you, nor do I condone your unjust attitude toward things, animals, and people that you do not try to understand. I stand opposed to what you do and have done in the past. You make fun of God and have murdered the world in the name of Jesus Christ. My faith in me is stronger than all of your armies, governments, gas chambers or anything you may want to do to me. I know what I have done. Your courtroom is man's game. Love is my judge†(Bugliosi 412). His hatred was directed towards them because he believed that they were the ones that created him into a monster. Therefore, cult leaders are powerful through psychological offenses, the people that belong to their cults are brainwashed into doing things they wouldn't normally do in their right state of mind. Cult leaders used various ways of molding a follower's mind and brainwashing them to do things for them. Some cult leaders used punishments as a way of breaking the follower's that were resistant to their demands. Others used and perfected the art of persuasion. Either way, the mind of their followers or ‘family' are in total control of the leader.

Schindler Ver Essay Example

Schindler Ver Essay Example Schindler Ver Essay Schindler Ver Essay OH major assignment initiated by VERA in 1995 Standardized ultra-low cost elevator, Nan-cuts amazed C]Sensitive discussions between Annapolis and plan ants in Switzerland, France, Spain C]Outcome: SOCIO C]landscaped out-source ratio Lionhearted processes never seen in Schneider Crisscrossed supply chain and reduced industry standard leading (20-gawks) to 50% Indian entry project C]Annapolis, assigned by VERA, to work with BCC to I identify suitable local partners after ABLE JP fail De in 1996 C]No suitable candidates found, but 100% whole y owned subsidiary was becoming legally feast able L]Annapolis spent 9 months with market experts an d local consultants and submitted his BP to IVR C]BP approved in Cot 1997 and Annapolis was offer De the job to of creating Indian subsidiary Why India? Clan 1995, Mr.. Schneider traveled to Asia during 6-months as batting period, to review long-term strategy Cafeteria 3,000 kern travel in 6 was in a small Ford rental I car in India, Mr.. Schneider saw India as a second China will be our Formula One racing track. In the taut o industry, 90% of all innovations are developed for and tee Steed on Formula One cars and then reproduced on a much larger scale and adapted for the mass market. We are test inning things in India-? in isolation and on a fast track -?t hat probably could not be done anywhere else in the com any. The expectation is that what we prove can be adapted d to the rest of the group. Annapolis view Call realized that the future manager Of the nee w company would be key to the success oft he business plan I had been worki ng on. 1 was conscious that my early involvement in t he project made me a candidate, so when the offer came, was not surprised. Deep down, I knew I could do it. Comer surprising was the reaction of my head quarters colleagues, who thought was razz to take such a high-risk career move the at involved dragging my family to a developing g country. Bonanzas view there are two possible profiles in a country like India. The first is a young guy who knows the company, people, and products; the second is someone who is 55 years old with grown kids looking for a new challenge. L]Mr.. Annapolis knew lots of people. He was open to go new way s. We needed someone who could handle different cult rest. Who was young and flexible. Owe needed to trust the person we sent, and we trusted h IM 100%. And we needed a generalist, not a pure special sit. We needed someone who had courage. Finally, I believe that the people who make the buss news plan should have to realize it. Of course, we alls o needed to have someone who was willing to go. Relocating to India C]Got stuck in one of the Bibs elevators on his 1 SST day I n the Delhi office C]errs after family landed the 2-yr-old daughter fell with deep wound requiring stitching under total anesthesia gawks later, my wife got food poisoning which required one week hospitalizing and even threatening miscarry rage the day she came back home my 3-yr-old son fell in h Tool bathroom and broke his front tooth For the only time in my life, I really wondered, whether r I could stand this much longer? C]You cant set your watch by the Indian trains. Sometimes even if you say no, its always ma De to sound like yes. Delhi Iambi , , , Rib. Mental power development CIT survive in India you need to be half moon k and half warrior. Cinchona is a warrior C] Driving very hard, impulsive, impatient, and at times eve r-communicative L] Gets angry when deadlines are not met C] Hes a pretty hard taskmaster C] Silvia has a lot of energy. C] When he focuses on an issue he manages to get everybody else s focus in hat direction. Annapolis will have to work on the monk part. Annapolis approach of hiring 0You try to see whether the character of the person is compatible with yours, whether you have a com moon set of values, which in our case range from high ethical standards, integrity, assiduousness to work, and drive. Mostly we were looking for people with the right attitude and energy, not just for elevator people. Mr.. Schneider had convinced me that the company really needed a front-line HRS manager who was ca able of developing a first-class organization. COM. K. Sings(Managing Director) 20 , O Annapolis , C] Asked Annapolis Who are your friends, who doesnt like you CIT. A. K. Matthews (UP Field Operations) OTIS 9 CLC , l realized that you dont have a chance to get involved with a start-up every day! C]Ronnie Dante (GM, Engineering) (l OTIS 24 L] Authentic depositories of an unpublished science, one oft he best! Panky Sinai(Head of HRS) Juju than Jean(GOOF) c] PG( ) Kellogg( ) Team building C]Len the first Schneider India staff meetings held at night, MO SST of those undercover sessions were dedicated to educe ting the new team about their new company and building c nonsense around our business plan. The team was really forged through days of late work, fuel De by the common motivation to see our project succeed. L]Mathews: Its true that if you look at Silvia, M. K. , and me w e are all very different. At first we had sessions where the discussion would get pulled in every direction, but I think I n the end, it did bring about a balance flout of this interaction emerged a company culture that me peoples described as informal, open, responsive, and proactive. It was also a lean, efficient organization. Profit analysis In rays life cycle of an elevator: Engineering, Production, Installation: C] 33% of labor. 20% of profit C]Service, Repair, Modernization, Replacement: CLC of labor. Of profit Core elements of BP 1 . Standard Product Strategy the need to sell a focused line of standard pro ducts Suspicious on solo (low-rise) SAPP (mid-rise) C]Differentiated sales and service. Account man cement concept with only One single hassle-free e window 2. Outsource Strategy C]The ability to outsource key manufacturing an d logistics functions AID competitors manufactured locally. L]Schneider India owns no in-house production, no centralized assembly, no logistics infrastructure C]SOCIO (Swatch project), 90% C]Maintenance stays in Schneider India Business Challenges Annapolis , Annapolis so 1) soon 30%, A 456%), Annapolis Discussion Questions This case study is about.. C]How would you evaluate Silos first seven moon this as general manager of the Indian company? C]What are his achievements? , That concerns do you have? Technical Director Schneider OPAC Left in 2004 TAKE Consultant oft in 2003 Managing Schneider S. Africa UP GOOF Schneider N. America Sows Silvia the right choice for general manage ere of Schneider India operations? Fife , , , 15 , , , ; Three major roles of a country manager 1. Bicameral Interpreter 2. National Defender Advocate 3. Frontline Implementer of Corporate Strategy Annapolis experience in India CEO Mr.. Schn eider This job requires high energy and courage. Its a battlefield experience.

scart lettre Essay

scart lettre Essay scart lettre Essay Hispanic History Month Essay Pablo Neruda was born on July 12th, 1904, in Parral Chile. His real name is Neftalà ­ Ricardo Reyes Basoalto. He adopted his pen name in memory of the Czechoslovak poet Jan Neruda. At the age of thirteen, Neruda wrote in â€Å"La Maà ±ana.† This was his first publication and his first poems. The IB learner profile gives examples of different traits that every person should have and show in their daily lives. Pablo Neruda exemplifies a person who is principled and is a communicator through his various governmental works. For his communication to much of the Hispanic public through his writings and his integrity and honesty in all of his various works, Pablo Neruda was presented the Nobel peace prize in literature in 1971. Throughout his life, Pablo Neruda always expressed his ideas, even through the hard times. Between 1927 and 1935, the government put him in charge of a number of honorary consulships, which took him to Burma, Ceylon, Java, Singapore, Buenos Aires, Barcelona, and Madrid. His poetic production during that difficult period included, among other works, the collection of esoteric surrealistic poems, Residencia en la tierra, which marked his literary breakthrough. During this time he spoke all around spreading his communist ideas. In 1948 a warrant was put out for his arrest. Neruda went into hiding, but he still kept writing. From his hiding, Pablo Neruda published many works and he remained confident and creative in his writings. Neruda was also very principled in his writings. He always

Tips on how to have a healthy and deep sleep during your exam period

Tips on how to have a healthy and deep sleep during your exam period How to have deep sleep despite of exams and stress During the exam period a lot of students just dream of the healthy sleep. They often face some sleep disorders because of the stress, unhealthy lifestyle, depression, and overfatigue. Fortunately, there are many natural sleep aids which can make you feel much better during your sleeping time and increase your productivity in the morning. Set a bedtime routine It is very important to go to bed and get up at the same time. You should follow this rule even on weekends. Quit smoking and drinking coffee after lunch You should remember that nicotine and caffeine can lead to sleep disturbances. These stimulants can make you feel tired in the morning. Switch to herbal tea which can help you sleep better. Make this calming tea time before bed your little ritual. Consider a supplement There are many supplements that do not harm our body and promote deep sleep. L-theanine, valerian, and melatonin are the most common ones. Valerian can cause a relaxation effect while melatonin and L-theanine can help you sleep soundly. Melatonin is a hormone that can regulate the wake and sleep cycle of your body. Just take one of these supplements a few hours before going to bed. Set your bedroom up for success Make your bedroom a pleasant and comfortable zone for sleeping. Your bed should be physically comfortable. Buy a new set of comfy sheets, consider new pillows and mattress. Make sure that your bedroom is quiet enough. It is worth buying a white noise generator to fight insomnia. In order to improve the quality of your sleep, turn off all technological devices. Using cell phones, tablets, notebooks before bedtime has become a common sleep disturbing habit of the majority of students. Sniff Aromatherapy A study shows that a scent of lavender helps fall asleep more easily and sleep much better. Do Yoga and meditate If your sleep problems are connected with that fact that you are unable to relax, yoga is just for you. It is a mind-quieting physical activity which is able to do wonders for relaxation. A simple meditation or some breathing exercises can also do the trick. It can help you clear your mind and prepare for longer and better sleep. Exercise regularly Physically active people sleep much better than those who don`t exercise at all. Do the mild exercises to improve your sleeping time. The more energy you expand during the day the better. A good relaxation exercise is the progressive muscle relaxation. You should tense and then relax all the muscle groups of your body. Eat properly First of all, avoid large meals in the evening. Make sure that your midday meals have a balance of protein and carbohydrates. Stay away from products full off sugar. Opt for fresh fruit instead. Take a warm bath A warm bath before going to bed can help you fall asleep more quickly and improve the quality of your sleep. Skip the candles and rose petals to make the atmosphere more relaxing. Get out of bed Very often we can`t stop our minds from racing when we are already in bed. In such cases, it is better to do something for 30 or more minutes until you feel really tired. Try to put aside all the thoughts that prevent you from getting asleep. Consider Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Your sleep disorders can become a serious problem. In such cases, you should meet regularly with a therapist to find out the true reasons of your insomnia and keep track of your sleep habits. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is a part of insomnia treatment.

Project management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 5

Project management - Essay Example This puts a strain on the little human resource available as all the activities have to be attended to simultaneously. The resource histogram shows the relationships of resource distribution between activities A, B, and D which use the same resource and overlap. Access levels are determined by the level of importance of the task. For instance, between the fourth and the twenty fourth days of September, task A will utilize eighty five percent of the human resource, while tasks B and D will use five percent and fifteen percent respectively. The histogram indicates the order and times in which the tasks will be handled. Task A will take place between 4th and 24th September, task B between 27th and 30th November, and task D between 30th of November and the 15th day of December. The scheduling method used is resource-limited scheduling. In this case, there is a stain on the available resource which has to be shared between activities that run simultaneously. The method involved creating a balance such that no activity is starved of these crucial resources when it is being implemented (Hartmann 117). The resources are carefully distributed such that, at any one time, the task with the greatest demand for the resources gets them in earnest. The two most notable stakeholders of the project are the auditors and clerks. They represent the best interests of the project and provide the project team members the needed support throughout the life of the project. The clerk should ensure proper documentation of the project. They should effectively facilitate cooperation and dialogue among the team members of the project so that it eases the effective operation of the company. A good piece of advice that the accountants should take would be to ensure that the project operates within the budget and the allocated time slots. This would ensure effective operation and completion of the scheduled phases. The

Physical education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Physical education - Essay Example At that time, it was not the jocular fun game which it has become today; instead, dodgeball was a deadly game in its origin. The tribes playing dodgeball would use putrefied matter or large rocks rather than rubber balls to play it and the game was used for intense workout. The competitors tried to knock out players of the other team by incapacitating or injuring them. The hit players were finished off by being pelted with more rocks. The team members of the injured and fallen competitor assumed the responsibility to protect the player and disperse the attackers by throwing rocks at them. The game was well-suited to encourage the tribesmen to jointly work against other tribes during the skirmishes. The tribes also used the game to identify the weak among them. Dr. James H. Carlisle, a missionary saw the tribes playing dodgeball and was left intrigued by the tribal men’s ruthlessness and agility (â€Å"History of Dodgeball†). He was also impressed by the solidarity and teamwork shown by the tribal men. Having watched the men play the game for hours and hours, Carlisle became obsessed with the weird ritual. On his way back to England, Carlisle shared his experience with some of his pupils in Europe. The reason the sport could not be carried on was the fact that the European men who were told about the game by Carlisle lacked the accuracy and natural agility to throw things on others or dodge being hit. Only after the return of Carlisle to the St. Mary’s College in Norfolk did he transform the ruthless practice into a civilized and playable game. The professional tournaments available for the Dodgeball players include the Dodgeball World Championship that is announced annually. The latest professional tournament was the â€Å"11th Annual Dodgeball World Chamionship & Convention† (â€Å"Professional Dodgeball†) organized on the 7th through 10th of August in Las Vegas. Dodgeball has a whole set of well-developed rules and regulations that the

Enterprise Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Enterprise Systems - Essay Example Examples of enterprise systems are email systems, project management systems and other productivity monitoring tools that would include workflow systems and accounting systems. Enterprise Systems in general are implemented to save on cost of implementation and maintenance. It is also adopted to ensure that independent island systems are prevented from proliferating in a large corporation intending to have a homogenous system that would cater to the needs of every employee of the company. Enterprise systems can also have modules that are exclusively used by certain departments or sections if not divisions within a company. Enterprise Systems Enterprise Systems are software specifically designed to address if not provide enterprise or corporate solutions to business challenges that would include productivity, timely reporting, and accurate reporting (Giachetti, 2010). Software applications are essential business tools that enable companies to gather data at the front end for processing or posting and converted into reports as part of the decision support systems. However, there are instances that needs for output and productivity are overtaken by exigency at the expense of accuracy. Such instances breed island systems that are difficult to dismantle and most of the time has incompatible output format to other systems. To illustrate: an accounting systems that only display its output on the screen and not dump into a file is considered an island system that has an incompatible output with other reporting system. Making use of the output of an island system in order for it to be usable by other systems could require additional steps that could make the whole process cumbersome and may result to lost time if not inaccurate data. Enterprise Systems normally have a common repository of data that can be the primary source of reports and inputs to other systems. An example of these types of system is the Enterprise Resource Planning software that would include accountin g modules, productivity monitoring modules and reporting packages. The reporting package for its part makes use of the common data created and updated by front end modules to create reports that would assist decision makers in making business decisions. Aside from the benefits described above another value that can be considered essential for large organization is the reduced cost of implementation and maintenance of an enterprise system since it is more cost effective. It should be noted that each island systems require several experts or skill set that would include operating system and systems administration expertise from where the island system is installed at or in, whereas an enterprise system would only require a single set of skills systems group (Maier, Hadrich, & Peinl, 2005). Considering that each island systems normally needs its own set of servers, whereas an enterprise solution will only require a single platform the cost of ownership is reduced drastically. The same is true if the infrastructure requirement of the island system includes its own user terminal which will result for each employee having several terminals on his or her desk or one terminal for every island systems. The cost of licensing island system is normally more expensive since the technology used is either proprietary or can only be used by software developed by the company that owns the licensing rights of the island system. Another value for the organization is the elimination of conversion or data scrubbing that will increase productivity for employees creating the reports. Since there will be little to no human intervention in the generation of reports including

Analysis on Team Dynamics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis on Team Dynamics - Essay Example Self managed teams are known to operate in a much effective and efficient manner and their productivity levels are even quite high. This is because when trust is bestowed upon employees, they end up learning at a higher rate and they tend to correct their mistakes and face issues on their own instead of depending on a manager to correct them in their operations. One of the major benefits that self managed team is that such teams are able to identify new ways of performing or attaining targets. Since, these teams are not being lead or are not being provided with the objective of attaining targets, members of these teams tend to come up with their own ideas of performing a particular job which can result in methods that are much effective as well as efficient. A major issue with these teams is that they may end up applying methods to work that may result in heavy losses since they implement trial and error method to figure out new ways to perform tasks. A major disadvantage of a manager controlled team is that in such teams decisions are mostly made by the managers and a manager who is directing such teams may not get the time to work on other important tasks. Mistakes and costs in manager lead teams are quite infrequent as they tend to use methods of operations that have already been tries and tested. Different members in a team are awarded with different roles and these roles contribute to the successful operations of a team. According to Belbin’s Team Role Theory, a team requires a Monitor Evaluator in order make contributions that are unbiased in nature and to analyze different solutions available to a team with a neutral mindset (Utley 284). Another role identified is that of an implementer, an implementer is necessary in a self directed team in order to identify a way to implement the strategy that was created by the team. The role of a shaper is even quite necessary in a particular team to ensure that all team members are focused on the target at hand

7.Is the world radically different from how it appears to be Explicate Essay

7.Is the world radically different from how it appears to be Explicate and assess Russells arguments for the distinction between appearance and reality, in Chapters 1 and 3 of his Problems of Philosophy - Essay Example To him, it is essential to clarify: first, if there is an external physical world, or is the world known merely an orderly combination of concepts and ideas; and secondly, the quality of knowledge held about the physical object. In this paper, we aim to provide a concise exploration of Russell’s ideas about reality and perception by going through his process of knowing, and the issues surrounding the authenticity of human awareness. Then, we assess his ideas by evaluating the strength of its logic from the metaphysical point-of-view. The self is able to connect with the external world through the senses. Knowledge, in this regard, starts with the experience of a physical object through seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, or touching. What is obtained about the object is called sense-data, and what allows for the capturing of these data is called sensation. For example, in the self’s experience of an apple, its redness and smoothness are regarded to be the sense-data which are captured through sensation—by seeing and touching. Through this thinking, it can be further said that the mere presence of the physical object in the external world allows for the emergence of these sense-data, for if there is no apple to begin with, there would not be any redness or smoothness identified. Therefore, the process of knowing clearly distinguishes perception and reality. In the context of seeing and touching an apple, what appears to be the apple and its features are clearly separate from what the real apple is and its features. Building on the previous discussion, it can be said that the fundamental differences between perception and reality have led to the development of two critical issues: (1) the questioning of reality; and (2) the questioning of the truths obtained about the physical object. In expounding on these issues, we intend to establish, first

Analysis on Team Dynamics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis on Team Dynamics - Essay Example Self managed teams are known to operate in a much effective and efficient manner and their productivity levels are even quite high. This is because when trust is bestowed upon employees, they end up learning at a higher rate and they tend to correct their mistakes and face issues on their own instead of depending on a manager to correct them in their operations. One of the major benefits that self managed team is that such teams are able to identify new ways of performing or attaining targets. Since, these teams are not being lead or are not being provided with the objective of attaining targets, members of these teams tend to come up with their own ideas of performing a particular job which can result in methods that are much effective as well as efficient. A major issue with these teams is that they may end up applying methods to work that may result in heavy losses since they implement trial and error method to figure out new ways to perform tasks. A major disadvantage of a manager controlled team is that in such teams decisions are mostly made by the managers and a manager who is directing such teams may not get the time to work on other important tasks. Mistakes and costs in manager lead teams are quite infrequent as they tend to use methods of operations that have already been tries and tested. Different members in a team are awarded with different roles and these roles contribute to the successful operations of a team. According to Belbin’s Team Role Theory, a team requires a Monitor Evaluator in order make contributions that are unbiased in nature and to analyze different solutions available to a team with a neutral mindset (Utley 284). Another role identified is that of an implementer, an implementer is necessary in a self directed team in order to identify a way to implement the strategy that was created by the team. The role of a shaper is even quite necessary in a particular team to ensure that all team members are focused on the target at hand

Food and Beverage Operations Management Assignment

Food and Beverage Operations Management - Assignment Example As a result of that different service and production system pertaining to the industry has been framed for the purpose of incorporating hygienic production and distribution system which ultimately results in health and nutrition of every consumer. Reports have also suggested that food and beverage industry has been the mainstay in the development of any country’s economy. According to Blazey (2009), whether it is a chemical or Pesticide Company, a biotech or a genetics firm, hotels, restaurants, or even large supermarkets such as the Walmart, Costco or Target Corporation; each of the business or industry revolves around beverage and food sector. Now, in the context of food and beverage production and service system, it has unique characteristics in comparison to the production and service delivery system of other products. The following are the characteristics: - The demand for food and beverages occurs at the peak time such as breakfast, lunch and dinner. However, other than these periods food industry generally experiences a lean phase. The demands for food might vary according to the time of the year as well as the events taking place in the surroundings. Hence, on the basis of the season and time of the year, the production and distribution system undergoes enormous amount of change. The food production and services are highly labour intensive. The industry requires both unskilled and skilled labour. The menu changes at regular interval of time and hence the production and distribution system changes (Dunne, Lusch and Carver, 2011). Both food and beverages are perishable in nature and as a result of that foods are required to be handled properly before, after and during the process of preparation. Figure 1 - Flow of Food (Source: Hollensen, 2007) 1.2 Discuss factors affecting recipes and menus for specific systems The recipes and menus get strongly affected by a number of factors. Broadly, food service systems are classified as a cook and chill, conv entional, assembly and commissioners serve (Lamb, Hair and McDaniel, 2011). The conventional food service is the type of service where food is prepared and is eaten at the same place. Cook and chill are the service where food is prepared and is eaten after a certain period of time, the commissioner is the system where food is prepared and is taken somewhere for eating and lastly in assembly service the food is brought to a new location and it requires reheating before actually consuming it. The factors which affect the recipes and menus for a specific system are as follows: - Demand of customers: - The consumer demands are probably the most vital factor that affects the recipes and menus. The tendency of customer demands is observed and a menu is prepared on the basis of that only (Lingar, 2007). Seasonality: - Seasonality is a major factor. Being a perishable product, it has strong dependence on season. For example, ice cream or cold drinks are hardly consumed during winters and as a result of that menu needs to be changed and alternate items such as juice need to be on the menu. Budget and Ability: - The budget and ability of the restaurant are also considered before finalizing the menu. For example, if there is a shortage of staff members or lack of ingredients, the menu list needs of to be shortened (Nazarko, 2004). 1.3 Compare the cost and staffing

Reading comprehension Essay Example for Free

Reading comprehension Essay ABSTRACT. sion The (STRAT), authors evaluated instruction, strategies followed reciprocal same-age the effectiveness by practice + SA) (STRAT of explicit in teacher-led reading whole-class activities, peer-tutoring comprehen activities or cross-age peer-tutoring activities (STRAT + CA) on 2nd and 5th graders reading comprehen sion and self-efficacy For perceptions. 2nd multilevel graders, analyses revealed sig nificant STRAT and STRAT + CA effects; however, the effects did not last after fin the program. Fifth graders on the posttest better than ishing icantly in all 3 experimental  control group their conditions Results peers. performed signif con also showed tinued growth for the STRAT and STRAT + CA conditions until at least 6 months after students finished the program. Moreover, on both the posttest and retention test, 5th graders in the STRAT + CA condition reported significantly fewer negative thoughts Key words: prehension, related to their elementary reading reading proficiency. multilevel education, strategies, modeling, peer tutoring, reading com self-efficacy RESEARCH, decoding instruction has had a long and continuous of attention and debate. However, a hiatus can be recorded in the study of history reading comprehension. Two decades ago, strategy intervention research was in instruction received renewed atten vogue, but only recently has comprehension with current studies building on what was accomplished in the 1980s. Now, tion, the challenge in reading comprehension research is to increase the efficacy of in struction in elementary schools by identifying the instructional practices and ac tivities that best serve to develop childrens self-monitoring for comprehension IN READING (Snow, Burns, Griffin, 1998). 291. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 292 The Journal Previously, students Once reading comprehension could decode, was considered comprehension was of Experimental Education to be a process of mastery: assumed to occur automatical ly (Dole, 2000). Research, however, has shown that good readers are character ized by more than just decoding skills. Cognitively based views of reading com readers use a flexible that proficient repertoire of prehension emphasize and regulating activities (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, comprehension monitoring  includes both cognitive and metacognitive Pearson, 1991), which strategies (Baker Brown, 1984; Paris, Wasik, Turner, 1991; Pressley Allington, 1999; Pressley, Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, Kurita, 1989). Cognitive strat egies can be defined as mental or behavioral activities that increase the likelihood such as rereading, activating prior background knowledge, of comprehension, and adjusting reading speed (Van Den Broek Kremer, 2000). Metacognitive strategies can be specified as self-monitoring and regulating activities that focus on the product and the process of reading, support  readers awareness of com prehension, and assist in the selection of cognitive strategies as a function of text difficulty, situational constraints, and the readers own cognitive abilities (Lories, 1998; Van Den Broek Kremer; Weisberg, Dardenne, Yzerbyt, 1988). There is no reason to believe that all elementary students spon Unfortunately, and skills knowledge taneously develop essential cognitive and metacognitive Research reviews, however, reveal Allington, 1999). (Hartman, 2001; Pressley that monitoring and regulating skills and effective application of relevant strate can  gies be taught (Dole et al. , 1991; Pressley, 2000; Pressley et al. , 1989). In this Jones, 1992; Block, 1993; respect, recent studies (Baumann, Seifert-Kessell, Dole et al. ; Dole, Brown, Thrathen, 1996; Pearson Fielding, 1991) and re of the National Reading Council (U. S. ; Snow et al. , 1998) underscore the ports value of explicit cognitive and metacognitive reading strategy instruction, for instruction takes the mystery out of the reading process, helping comprehension students assume control (Raphael, 2000, p. 76). As to the practice of teaching observation re  reading, however, little has changed since Durkins (1978-1979) instruction. The dominant instructional practice is into comprehension students about text content, still very traditional, characterized by questioning with little explicit attention to the strategic aspects of processing and compre hending text (Aarnoutse, 1995; Paris Oka, 1986; Pressley, Wharton-McDon 1986). ald, Hampston, Echevarr? a, 1998; Weterings Aarnoutse, search In addition to the importance of explicit reading strategies instruction, research the effects program of an innovative  on the cognitive, and social, (Belgium) comprehension for reading The study was school children. emotional by a supported of elementary development Research-Flanders. Research grant of the Fund for Scientific Assistantship to: Hilde Van Keer, Department be addressed should of Education, Correspondence Hilde. VanKeer E-mail: Henri Dunantlaan Ghent Ghent, 2, 9000 Belgium. University, This study was part of a investigation long-term in Flanders instruction of @ UGent. Be This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  293 Van Keer Verhaeghe has revealed that the development of reading competence in the elementary can be encouraged by interaction with peers (Almasi, 1996; Fuchs, Fuchs, grades Mathes, Simmons, 1997; Johnson-Glenberg, 2000; Mathes Fuchs, 1994; Mathes, Torgesen, Allor, 2001; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Rosenshine Meis ter, 1994; Simmons, Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, Hodge, 1995). The traditional teacher-led evaluation interaction seems of pattern teacher question-student an to achieve insufficient actual response-teacher increase in comprehension,  higher level cognition, and the application of self-regulation strategies (Cazden, 1986). Relying on the teachers interpretive authority causes students to become passive learners. to become Conversely, students readers, self-regulated need to take an active role and to recognize and resolve their own discrepancies with texts (Almasi; Gourgey, 2001). Research has demonstrated that this kind of ac tive reading behavior is promoted by providing students with opportunities to en gage in peer-led interaction about texts. More particularly, it has been shown that, through  students discussions, peer implement, conferences, evaluate, and peer modify and tutoring, strategies, activities, cooperative and discuss of transfer strategies (Klingner Vaughn, 1996; Klingner, Vaughn, Schumm, 1998; Pal incsar Brown, 1984). Moreover, discussions between peers provide opportu nities for metacognitive (Palincsar, David, Winn, exchanges and modeling 1991). In this way, childrens knowledge about reading and reading strategies, as well as their ability to apply relevant strategies, increases. Despite these convincing research results, student-centered  discussion with regard to is anything but common practice in most classrooms reading comprehension Stevens, (Alvermann, 2000). In the present study, we attempted to narrow the gap between prevailing in structional practice and research evidence in the field of reading comprehension instruction. An innovative approach, blending research-based strategies instruction and to practice opportunities strategic the from practices research fields, was designed, aforementioned implemented, More specifically, the innovations comprised two cornerstones: and evaluated. explicit reading  reading in peer-tu toring dyads. Peer tutoring was introduced to stimulate student interaction be cause of the opportunities it creates to practice metacognitive skills. It should be noted that studies of peer tutoring in reading comprehension and thinking skills are relatively rare (Topping, 2001). Following research on peer-assisted learning strategies (e. g. , Fuchs, Fuchs, et al. , Mathes, 1997), c? as s wide peer tutoring (e. g. , Greenwood, 1991; Greenwood, Carta, Hall, 1988), and studies focusing on practicing reading strategies in small cooperative groups (e.g. , Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, Schuder, 1996; Palincsar Brown, 1984; Pressley et al, 1992; Stevens, Madden, Slavin, Famish, 1987; Stevens, Slavin, Famish, 1991), the present study involved training in comprehension strategies rather than tutoring students in word-level oral reading or low-level comprehension activities. Peer tutoring can be defined as people from similar social groupings who are This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 294. The Journal of Experimental Education not professional  teachers helping each other to leam, and learning themselves by teaching (Topping, 1996, p. 322). This definition covers a series of practices, in cluding peers as one-on-one teachers to provide individualized instruction, prac tice, repetition, and clarification of concepts (Topping, 1988; Utley Mortweet, 1997). Peer tutoring is structurally embedded in the curriculum and classroom organization and is characterized by specific role taking: One person has the job of tutor, while the other is the tutee (Topping, 1996). Moreover, effective peer tu tutor training (Bentz Fuchs, 1996;toring is characterized by a preceding Fuchs, Fuchs, Bentz, Phillips, Hamlett, 1994; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, Karns, Dutka, 1997). With regard to the dyad composition, two variants can be tutoring refers to older students tutoring younger stu distinguished. Cross-age in same-age tutoring, children are paired with classmates. The variant in dents; students alternate regularly between the tutor and tutee role is called rec iprocal same-age tutoring (Fantuzzo, King, Heller, 1992). Peer tutoring has been successful in a variety of curriculum areas and age groups. Research has indicated positive effects on academic achievement for both tutor and tutee (Cohen, Kulik, Kulik, 1982; Fantuzzo, Davis, Ginsburg, 1995; which Fantuzzo, Polite, Grayson, 1990; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes et al. , 2001 ;Simmons et al. , 1995). In this respect, peer tutoring is not only about transmission from the more able and experienced to the less able (Topping, 1996); tutors seem to benefit even more from tutoring than students who receive et al. ; Lambiotte et al. , the individual tuition (Fitz-Gibbon, 1988; Greenwood 1987). This can be explained by the nature of tutoring a peer: Tutors are chal to engage in ac lenged to consider the subject fully from different perspectives, to identify and correct errors, to reorganize and clarify their own tive monitoring knowledge and understandings, and to elaborate on information in their explana tions (Fuchs Fuchs, 2000). Because the application of reading strategies re quires actively monitoring the reading process, peer tutoring may be considered a powerful learning environment for the acquisition of reading comprehension the reading process of another reader might facilitate the ac skills. Monitoring of self-monitoring skills and, hence, the adequate application of reading quisition (1978) the strategies. From a theoretical perspective, consistent with Vygotskys ory of socially mediated learning, the object of the dyadic interaction in the peer tutoring activities is the joint construction of text meaning by appropriate appli cation of relevant reading strategies to a wide range of texts and, in the long term, the intemalization and consistently self-regulative flexible use of strategic pro cessing whenever encountering texts that are challenging to comprehend. Furthermore, positive effects also have been found on tutors and tutees social and emotional functioning, especially with regard to self-efficacy perceptions, self-concepts, social relationships, and attitudes toward the curriculum areas treated in the tutoring sessions (e. g. , Cohen et al. , 1982; Fantuzzo et al. , 1992; Fantuzzo et al. , 1995; Greenwood et al. , 1988; Mathes Fuchs, 1994). Regard This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 295 Van Keer Verhaeghe is an especially self-efficacy  important construct, ing reading comprehension, that attention to strategy instruction alone is not sufficient to produce max given imum reading growth (Casteel, Isom, Jordan, 2000). Affective factors result in deeper engagement with text, which translates into superior achievement. Henk and Melnick (1995) asserted that self-efficacy judgments can affect an individ uals overall orientation to the process of reading; influence choice of activities; affect continued involvement, amount of effort expended during reading, and the in pursuing text comprehension; And ultimately affect degree of persistence achievement. Our aim in the present intervention study was to design, implement, and evalu ate complex sets of instructional interventions in authentic classrooms to enhance second and fifth graders reading comprehension achievement and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. The specific contribution of the present study is the focus on peer-tutoring variants as instructional techniques to practice the use of reading. More strategies. comprehension we specifically, concentrated on an ex of practicing reading strategies in (a)  plicit comparison teacher-led whole-class activities, (b) reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities, or (c) cross-age peer-tutoring activities within the same study for two different age groups. So far, cross- and same-age tutoring have not been compared within the same study, and there is only indirect reference material from themeta-analysis of of the relative merit Cohen and colleagues (1982) with regard to the differential impact. Furthermore, in the present study, we extend prior research by (a) sampling a larger number of studies; Participants than is typically the case in strategies-based comprehension (b) supporting teachers to implement the innovations in the natural classroom con text with the participation of all students of all abilities during an entire school year, which represents sensitivity to the interventions ecological validity; (c) tar geting students in the early and intermediate grades, populations that deserve more attention with regard tometacognitive and strategic behavior; (d) including maintenance long-term measures; (e) using standardized reading comprehension tests not directly linked to the treatment; and (f) applying multilevel modeling to  take the hierarchical nesting of students in classes into account. Based on a review of the research literature and the aforementioned lines of reasoning, we formulated the following hypotheses for the study: Hypothesis teacher-led 1. Explicit whole-class reading or peer-tutoring graders reading comprehension prehension strategies instruction, activities, achievement more followed enhances by practice second and in fifth than traditional reading com instruction. 2. Practicing reading strategies in cross-age or reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities generates larger positive changes in second and fifth  Hypothesis graders during comprehension whole-class achievement than more traditional activities. This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions teacher-led practice 296 The Journal Education of Experimental is more obvious for sec 3. Improvement in reading comprehension Hypothesis ond and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respectively, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating between the tutor and tutee roles in reciprocal same-age activities. Hypothesis 4. Cross-age and reciprocal same-age peer-tutoring activities second and fifth graders self-efficacy perceptions toward reading more ditional teacher-led instructional techniques. improve than tra 5. Improvement in self-efficacy perceptions toward reading is more Hypothesis obvious for second and fifth graders functioning as tutees and tutors, respective ly, in cross-age peer-tutoring activities than for their peers alternating roles in activities. same-age reciprocal Method Design We used a pretest, posttest, and retention test control group design. To ensure the ecological validity of the interventions, we included complete naturally com posed classes. Participating classes were assigned to one of four research condi tions. In the strategies-only condition (STRAT), the experimental intervention in cluded explicit reading strategies instruction, followed by practice in teacher-led whole-class settings. The experimental same-age (STRAT + SA) and cross-age included identical instruction in the (STRAT + CA) peer-tutoring conditions same cross-age dyads, or cross-age with combined strategies, In this respectively.  tutoring. Finally, class-wide we respect, included practice students a control in reciprocal experienced either characterized group, or same-age same by tra activities without explicit strategies instruction ditional reading comprehension or peer tutoring. Classes were randomly assigned to the STRAT or tutoring con ditions. Within the tutoring conditions, teachers opted in favor of the STRAT + SA or STRAT + CA condition according to the readiness of a colleague to col laborate in the STRAT + CA activities. We selected control group classes to match the experimental teachers  and classes. Because the classes were naturally composed and the assignment of classes to the conditions was not completely randomized, the design can be regarded as quasi-experimental. Participants In total, 444 second and 454 fifth graders from 44 classes in 25 different schools throughout Flanders (Belgium) participated in the study. Except for some small-scale initiatives of individual schools, peer tutoring was fairly unfamiliar at the time of the study. Other cooperative or interactive techniques, such as This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 297 Van Keer Verhaeghe and circle time, were better known and more group work, group discussion, fre used. quently Except for one inner-city school in the STRAT condition with mainly a low so status and ethnic minority population, all schools had a predomi cioeconomic Flemish population. The majority of the children were from middle nantly white, class families. Except for one second-grade class including only girls, there was approximately an equal gender distribution: In second- and fifth-grade classes, on = = 18.55) of the students were boys. At 16. 54) and 48% (SD average, 53% (SD the beginning of the school year, second graders were aged, on average, 7 years and 4 months, and fifth graders were aged, on average, 10 years and 5 months. The majority of the students (402 in second and 422 in fifth grade) were native speakers. Because elementary school students in Flanders are not grouped by ability, classes are considered academically heterogeneous, which was con firmed by the pretest reading comprehension measures. Class size ranged from 15 to 28 students, with an average of approximately 21 (SD = 3.50) in the second grade, and from 10 to 30 students in the fifth grade, with an average of approxi = mately 22 (SD 5. 00) students per class. Second- and fifth-grade teachers had, on Dutch average, 11 and 20 years of teaching experience, respectively. Four of 22 second grade and 5 of 22 fifth-grade teachers were men. None of the teachers had previ ous experience in explicit reading strategies instruction or peer tutoring. We selected participating teachers from a group of approximately 100 second and fifth-grade teachers who were willing to take part in a long-term research study. All interested teachers received a questionnaire concerning their teaching practices and opinions regarding learning and instruction. The first step in the teacher-selection we selected ative and interactive to pace according was procedure student-oriented instructional or content. who Furthermore, of the schools of matching and classes this specifically, in applying experienced cooper and able to build in differentiation we based the throughout Flanders with More questionnaire. were techniques graphical distribution teachers on based teachers regard to selection on the geo and on the possibility teachers teaching  experience, beliefs, and instructional practice; class size; students age; gender distribution; and dominating mother tongue. Table 1 shows the number of participating class es and students Measurement per condition. Instruments study, we used standardized tests to measure students reading achievement and decoding fluency. We administered question comprehension naires with respect to reading attitude, perceived competence, and preoccupation with attributions and self-efficacy perceptions toward reading. In the present Reading tests. We comprehension using Dutch standardized measured test batteries reading  comprehension (Staphorsius Krom, This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions achievement 1996; Verhoeven, 298 The Journal TABLE 1. Number of Participating Education of Experimental Classes and Students Grade Fifth Second Condition Classes STRAT + SA STRAT + CA STRAT Control 6 5 Note. cross-age 163 124 444 22 = explicit whole-class STRAT teacher-led peer-tutoring 22 101 69 177 107 454 66 8 Students 91 3 group Total Classes Students reading comprehension strategies instruction followed by practice in = activities; SA activities; CA = same-age peer-tutoring  reciprocal activities. 1993), which were selected based on the tests well-established psychometric the built-in adaptation to different student abilities, and the fact characteristics, that the tests address aspects of comprehension covered by the strategies part of occasion, we administered the experimental program. At each measurement with an increasing level of difficulty. The questions tiple-choice tence, the referral contained pretest second-grade asking relation for between short six the meaning words, stories, of each a word, the connection followed the meaning between by of sentences, tests 5 mul  a sen and the theme of a text. We determined the scores by the number of correct answers. The second-grade post- and retention tests consisted of four and three different stories, respectively, each followed by 4 to 10 multiple-choice questions, with a total of 25 questions per test. More specifically, questions concerning the content of a text (demanding a clear understanding of the meaning of words and sen tences, the referral relation between words, the connection between sentences, and the theme of the text) and questions concerning the communication between the author and the reader of the text (e.g. , objective of the author, intended target group, the authors attitude toward the matter raised) could be distinguished. Both types of questions required integration of information on different textual levels (words, sentences, paragraphs, text) and were more or less equally distrib uted over the 25 questions per text. After discussing an example, students com pleted the tests individually. To examine the tests internal consistency, Cron bachs a coefficients were calculated on our own data, yielding high reliability scores of . 90 (n = 432) for the pretest, . 84 (n = All) for the posttest, and . 83 (n = 385) for the retention test. In fifth grade, the tests consisted of three modules of 25 multiple-choice ques tions each. All students took the first module of the test. Depending on these first This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 299 Van Keer Verhaeghe results, students further completed an easier or more difficult module. Two types of questions requiring the integration of information on different textual levels could be distinguished: questions concerning the content and questions concern ing the communication the author  between and the reader. an After stu example, dents completed the tests individually. Scores were determined by summing the correct answers. For the reading comprehension test, IRT-modeled scores were on Item Response Theory (IRT), a common scale had been de available: Based allowing us to veloped for different grades and test versions (easy-difficult), or more difficult part of the test. Because they are all on the compare the easier same scale, the IRT-modeled scores also allow for direct comparison of the re occasions. To verify the relia sults a student obtained at different measurement  bility of the three modules of the pre-, post-, and retention tests, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients on our own data. Table 2 indicates that reliability of all measures comprehension was acceptable. test. We included second graders decoding fluency, which is a Decoding fluency combination of accuracy and decoding speed (Chard, Simmons, Kameenui, 1998), as an additional variable, because fluency can be considered a mediating factor on students reading comprehension achievement (Pressley, 2000). A stan dardized test (Brus, 1969) was administered individually to  all second graders; students were asked to read unrelated words with an increasing level of difficul ty during exactly 1min. The score was determined by counting the number of words read correctly. We collected fluency data in second-grade classes only be cause it is recognized that reading fluency is generally well developed at the end of the third grade (Bast Reitsma, 1998; Sticht James, 1984) and because it was too time to test consuming all fifth graders as well. individually on self-efficacy perceptions and related causal attributions. With Questionnaire  in the framework of the present study, we developed a questionnaire to measure TABLE a Coefficients 2. Cronbachs Comprehension for the Fifth-Grade Reading Tests Measurement occasion Posttest Pretest Test module n n an a .81 1 .76 2 3 .66 Note. At each measurement used. 468 167 271 occasion a different Retention test a .72 .76 .74 test with 442 256 175 an increasing This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .76 .79 .77 41 level of difficulty 403 362 was 300. The Journal Education of Experimental  students preoccupation with positive or negative thoughts or related causal attri butions with regard to their reading ability. Inspired by the work of Ames (1984), we asked children to report how often such thoughts crossed their mind before, during, or after reading. Factor analysis revealed that success attributions and positive thoughts about ones own reading competence on the one hand and fail ure attributions and negative self-efficacy perceptions on the other hand are very (1984) and closely related. This result is in line with the findings of Marsh and Debus (1984), who stated that self-attribu  Marsh, Cairns, Relich, Barnes, can tions seen be as or expressions indicators ones of or self-concept self-effi we constructed two scales reflecting negative and cacy perceptions. Therefore, about ones own reading abilities. It should be positive thoughts, respectively, noted that capturing the incidence of self-efficacy-related thoughts does not give a direct measure of students self-efficacy perception but rather indicates the de a student is preoccupied with such thoughts. In this respect, related to (meta)cognitive activity than data collected gree to which data are more means the directly of more  traditional a However, questionnaires. self-concept by inci high dence of negative self-efficacy-related thoughts can be considered an indication of a low self-efficacy perception, but such a conclusion cannot be drawn from a low incidence of positive self-efficacy-related thoughts. The latter suggests only that the student is not preoccupied with thoughts about reading proficiency or success. We administered read graders and completed at each the questionnaire the questionnaire measurement occasion. In individually. second Fifth all grade, items were read out loud to and judged individually by the students. As can be seen in Table 3, reliability was high for the negative subscale, but it was somewhat lower for the positive subscale. To investigate the validity of the both questionnaire, TABLE scales were correlated a Coefficients 3. Cronbachs Preoccupation With Attributions with for the scholastic the Questionnaire Measurement 2nd grade Success Concerning occasion attributions negative 2nd grade 5th grade and self-efficacy perceptions Failure Posttest 5th grade anananan scale attributions positive sub and Self-Efficacy Perceptions Pretest Questionnaire competence .63 419 .69 441 .75 402 .71 426 367 .83 408 .84 368 .81 393 and self-efficacy perceptions .77 This content downloaded on Fri, 15 Feb 2013 01:52:54 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 301 Van Keer Verhaeghe scale of a Dutch Profile for Children (Harter, version of the Self-Perception 1985). These analyses revealed that both positive and negative self-efficacy per ceptions were significantly (p 0. 01) correlated with the scholastic self-concept subscale with r = -. 40 (pretest) and r = -. 37 (posttest) for the negative self-effi = . 22 = . 19 cacy subscale and r (posttest) for the positive self-ef  (pretest) and r subscale. ficacy scale. Although we mainly focused on students self-effi cacy perceptions directly related to reading activities, we administered an exist (Veerman, Straathof, Treffers, Van den Bergh, ing self-concept questionnaire ten Brink, 1997), which is a Dutch version of the Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985). Because the questionnaire was not appropriate for sec Perceived competence ond graders, we used the instrument with the fifth-grade group only. To verify the reliability of the different scales, we computed Cronbachs a coefficients. As can be seen in Table 4, the reliability of the measures was acceptable. As to the ques tionnaires validity, Veerman and colleagues investigations into the validity of self-report reported that, compared with other scales, the validity can be judged as moderate. Reading attitude scale. Both second and fifth graders completed a Dutch Read ing Attitude Scale (Aarnoutse, 1996) at the pre- and posttest. Fifth graders read and completed the questionnaire individually.